Linebacker I and Linebacker II on the Outcome of the War

Linebacker I and Linebacker II on the Outcome of the War A paper submitted to the Faculty of the Naval War College in partial satisfaction of the requirements of the Department of Strategy and Policy based on the following assigned topic: Question #7: In light of how the Paris Peace Accords were reached in 1972-1973, what effect did Linebacker I and Linebacker II have on the outcome of the war? The contents of this paper reflect my own personal views and are not necessarily endorsed by the Naval War College or the Department of the Navy. Signature: _____________________ December 15, 2016 Seminar 20 Moderators: CDR John Sheehan Professor Michelle Getchell To quickly end the Vietnam War and withdraw American troops in an honorable fashion, the Nixon Administration engaged in a strategy of diplomacy and cocurrent military pressure. The focus of the diplomatic track was to negotiate a formal agreement between belligerents. This diplomatic track ultimately resulted in the accord known as the Paris Peace Accords. The military track endeavored to persuade the North to come to the negotiating table in by destroying its will to resist and war-making capabilities through a demonstration of Americas superior air power and unwavering commitment to a free and independent South Vietnam. The series of air raids conducted in support of this goal are known as LINEBACKER I and LINEBACKER II. Both LINEBACKER I and LINEBACKER II had an effect on the war, but both had different results. LINEBACKER I disproved the theory of victory for the North due to their misinterpretation of timing in switching from Phase II to Phase III of Maos strategy, and understa nding of the level of support President Nixon would have from key North Vietnam allies. LINEBACKER II was ultimately successful in bringing all belligerents to the negotiating table, the North by deteriorating the will to fight and further degrading North Vietnamese Warfighting capabilities, and the South due to the waning support of the new U.S. Congress for the war. In early 1972, the North began to shift military tactics from Phase II guerrilla warfare to a much more conventional Phase III form of according to Maos three phase strategy.1 This change is seen in the Easter Offensive that launched on March 30 which was brought about by the success the North enjoyed in Lam Son 719. Because of the Souths need for security and poor military execution, and communication, Operation Lam Son 719 collapsed when faced with resistance from the Northern commanders. The campaign was a disasterous for the South, demostrating their deficiencies and proving that the best units of the South could be defeated by the North.2 North Vietnam conducted the Easter Offensive to take the initiative and weaken Americas commitment to South Vietnam with a significant impact on negotiations producing more favorable terms for them at negotiations. The general feeling was that once troop reduction had reached a certain level the U.S. would have insignificant influence to affect the strategic situation.3 Prior to this the North Vietnamese were on Stage II of Maos three-stage plan for war. The decision to initiate the strategic counter-offensive in the Easter Offensive was premature. The South Vietnamese and U.S. still held a position of greater military power and changing phases at that point was counter to the Maos theories.4 In this second stage, enemy troop morale should continue to deteriorate, which it was in the case of the U.S. Due to American support. The position of North Vietnam in contrast to South Vietnam had not progressed far enough to give an advantage that would support Phase III, and international support should also have grown for the North Vietnamese. Due to the Easter Offensive and lack of willingness to negotiate on the part of the North Vietnamese the International support was not there. Having fulfilled only two of the three requirements to change phase, it was not the proper time, and the North Vietnamese hurt their war efforts. As a result of early North Vietnamese action, President Nixon announced the negotiations between North Vietnam and the United States taking place in Paris as well as the concessions the South Vietnamese and United States were willing to conceed to. Failure of these negotiations allowed the President to put the blame on North Vietnam for refusing to negotiate a peaceful end to the war. This address would do several things, first put diplomatic pressure on North Vietnam by announcing the negotiations in progress and placing North Vietnam in the position of the faithless party. Second, the speech demonstrated that America had exhausted all diplomatic options, which had already been initiated, and set the stage for military action if North Vietnam continued to insist on continuing inflexibility. Hanoi rejected the peace terms offered which gave Nixon the legitimacy he needed to turn to military pressure, the very thing that the North had discounted in their calculations.4 Another problem facing the North at this time is the increasing warmth of relations between the U.S. and the Norths patrons Russia and China. While China was using the U.S. to balance against Russia they were forced to realign forces and took support from North Vietnam. Concurrnetly, Russia was stepping up dà ©tente and viewed China as an enemy.5 This increasing cooperation with Northern allies isolated the North and presented an opportunity for a series of painful military strikes against the North Vietnamese that would decimate entire infantry units and nearly all of the Norths armored vehicles.5 With waning support from their key allies aquiring replacement equipment was difficult and outright victory in a conventional campaign was al but imposssible. President Nixon stated that the U.S. was going to continue fighting until the Communists agreed to negotiate a fair and honorable peace or until the South Vietnamese were able to defend themselves on their own whichever came first. 5 Immediately prior to the 1972 elections, peace talks between Hanoi, Saigon, and Washington began to deteriorate. As a result, President Nixon authorized a follow on air campaign against North Vietnam that would be called LINEBACKER II. The objective of LINEBACKER II differed from LINEBACKER I in that it was intended to destroy Hanois will to fight, and demonstrate Americas commitment to South Vietnams independence after the withdrawal of American troops. Many of the LINEBACKER I targets were attacked again during LINEBACKER II. However; LINEBACKER II had a purpose other than interdicting Northern forces. Military commanders wanted the bombers to cause distress to the civilian population in an effort to disuade them from committing to the fighting on the side of the North while avoinding civilian casualties. To degrade North Vietnamese will to fight, U.S. leadership wanted the people of Hanoi to hear the bombs.6 The ability of a nation to fight is military force and the will of the pe ople. In the case of North Vietnam the millitary force had been signifigantly reduced and that left the will of the people to force settlement. With congressional support waning, North Vietnam adjusted its actions to delay negotiations until after the newly elected Congress was sworn in, believing that support to continue the war in Vietnam would wane. Nixon thought the only way to break the Norths inflexibility and bring them back to the negotiating table was to raise the cost of their reluctance in negotiation. The President commented, We have now reached the point where only the strongest action would have any effect in convincing Hanoi that negotiating a fair settlement with us was a better option for them than continuing the war.7 The strongest show of force in this case was the use of the B-52 Stratofortress. This decision was the optimal choice for attacking the will of the populace. President Ninxon and his advisers desired to inflict maximum psychological impact on the North Vietnamese, supporting the South and reducing the cost to the U.S. in american lives.8 The B-52 could carry a massive conventional payload, was capable of carrying nuclear weapons which sent a message in itself, and had all-weather capabilities making it a perfect tool to deliver a psychological blow to the enemy. The B-52 could attack at altitudes of over 30,000 feet, rendering it impossible to be seen or heard by North Vietnamese troops on the ground allowing for attacks that happened without warning. The suddenness of the attacks along with their intensity had a telling effect. Recalling personal experience with LINEBACKER IIs bombing campaign one Viet Cong member said, The first four times I experienced a B-52 attack it seemed, as I strained to press myself into the bunker floor, that I had been caught in the Apocalypse. The terror was complete. One lost control of bodily functions as the mind screams incomprehensible orders to get out.9 During the LINEBACKER II operation, military leaders had authority to use air power to end the war effectively and the results were apparent. The Norths transportation network was decimated. Aircraft attacked and destroyed storage warehouses, electric power generating facilities cutting their capacity by three-quarters, and petroleum facilities reducing that capability by one-fourth.10 LINEBACKER II inflicted significant damage to North Vietnams war-making capability, but more importantly accomplished its primary purpose of unsettling the civilian population. As a result of LINEBACKER II, the belligerents came back to the bargaining table after eleven days of intensive bombing. The scale and success of the operation persuaded the North to accept terms that included some of Thieus newly added provisions. Congressional outcry over the scale of LINEBACKER II caused the South to realize that support for the war might be running out, making this an opportune time to accept peace and retai n as much as possible ensuring survival.11 Linebacker I was politically and practically a remarkable success. Asa result of the bombs dropped during the campaign, the Northhad a shift in thought. For the first time in the war the U.S. had used air power in a way that influenced the will of the North to continue the fight. The North had been convinced that the warwas becoming too costly for them. Some would argue that the North Vietnamese theory of victory was not disproven and they were not forced to go to the negotiating table. Their theory of victory was only put on hold by the actions of LINEBACKER and the U.S. was never in a position to win. The results LINEBACKER II did not force the North to the negotiating table but enabled them to transition back to Phase II, along with the withdrawl of U.S. forces and lack of support to the South ultimately enabled them to succeed in their bid to unite the Vietnamese people. The LINEBACKER I operation had left the Norths conventional forces decimated.10 The North had unsuccessfully tried persecuting the war by conventional means but U.S. air power had proven its worth and destroyed the majority of Northern troops and armored vehicles.11 Though costly to the North, the theory of victory through conventional means was not disproven, only delayed. To the conventional adversary this would have led to a cessation of hostilities due to lack of ability to continue the fight, but one of the strengths of the North was was in followingd the theories of Mao. These theories garnered the support from the local populace. The North Vietnamese forces understood that Vietnamese pesants had endured hundreds of years of oppression and rule.12 The Souths treatment of the pesants was similar to outside forces which had oppressed them with little attempt to understand them. In contrast the North Vietnamese forces dutifully followed Maos teachings, politely asking for supply a nd helping work for their repayment as well as proclaiming their belief in land reform, equality and governmental reform.13 The South by contrast was rife with corruption, inefficiency, and greed often setting themselves above the peasantry stealing supply and food. In this way the South Vietnamese were their own worst enemy. Their lack of support to the peasants drove them to the side of the North for protection against the unjust rule of the state. This led to not the hills menacing the villages, hills were the villages.13 The Cause of the North had become an ideal that the pesantry had bought in to and they had become the insurgents sho would continue to fight for their cause, overthrow of the local elites, good treatment and increased living standards enjoyed by the pesants through the efforts of the North. This dynamic created a situation in which it was difficult to tell who was the enemy and who was the villager. The U.S. was never in the position to win a lasting peace in this situation for several reasons. We lacked an understanding of the people and what they desired.14 Without the proper understanding of the desires of the people the U.S. could try to secure villages, give out aid and try to reinforce the government, but the government was a primary reason for the insurgency. More importantly, the U.S. was viewed as an unwanted foreign presence. Since the Vietnamese had fought against and suffered foreign opression for so long there was initial distrust and with our self imposed lack of cultur al awareness we would not be able to destroy the idea that was the root cause of the war. LINEBACKER II did not force the belligerents to the nogotiating table, it just provided the North with the opportunity to regroup revert to Phase II and wait for the U.S. to withdraw its forces leaving the North in a more advantageous position from which to rebuild for the next Phase III and the reunification of the Vietnamese people that they desired. The misinterpretation of their success in Lam Son 719 led the north to the Easter Offensive and as a result cost them a good deal of men and equipment. The only thing that they had left was the pesant population which it enjoyed great support from.14 Realizing their tenuous position the North signaled that it wished to resume peace negotiations and as a result the LINEBACKER II raids immediately ceased. In the absence of these continued the attacks the North would secure a political victory at the peace table by keeping Northern forces in the South.15 During this time they would be able to rebuild and strengthen their forces and would, in time, translate this into a full-scale military conquest of South Vietnam upon their transition back to Phase III. Not long after the end of Linebacker II, the U.S. withdrew its forces from the war in Southeast Asia and returned home. Two years later the North, knowing that it no longer faced any realistic threat of another Linebacker II, invaded South Vietnam across a broad front.16 The Communist forces of the North entered Saigon on April 30, 1975, and unified the two Vietnams under one government. A full application of airpower in a Linebacker could have achieved military victory, prevented the long and costly U.S. involvement and saved South Vietnam as a nation. While the North had went to the table to negotiate, it was to buy time and gain an advantageous position, not in good faith. 1 Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford University Press, (1980), III 5. 2 Carl von Clausewitz. On War: Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton. Princeton University Press, (1976), 618. 3 Ibid., 186. 4 Kevin McCranie. The War at Sea.(presentation, Strategy and War Course, Naval War College, Newport, RI, 14 December 2016). 5 Paul M Kennedy. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. New York. Humanity Books, (1976), 242. 6 Ibid. 245 7 Kevin McCranie. The War at Sea.(presentation, Strategy and War Course, Naval War College, Newport, RI, 14 December 2016). 8 Paul M Kennedy. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery. New York. Humanity Books, (1976), 245 . 9 Ibid. 248 10 Kevin McCranie. The War at Sea.(presentation, Strategy and War Course, Naval War College, Newport, RI, 14 December 2016).), 147. 1 Elliot A. Cohen and John Gooch. Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War.New York. Free Press, (1990), 134. 12 Ibid. 134. 3 Carl von Clausewitz. On War: Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton. Princeton University Press, (1976), 177. 4 Elliot A. Cohen and John Gooch. Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War.New York. Free Press, (1990), 136. 5 Admiral von Holtzendorf. German History in Documents and Images. Selected Readings. Naval War College, Newport, RI, (2016), 2.       6 Ibid. 3. 7 Ibid. 4.

Product Life Cycle Essay

â€Å"The international product life cycle (PLC) theory of trade states that the location of production of certain kinds of products shifts as they go through their life cycles, which consist of four stages—introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. † There are many ins and outs when a company is putting a product into production and distribution. You must be able to assess the the impact that it is going to gain for your company, for instance when Blackberry makes new phones they have to decide what is going to be a draw for consumers from the operating system, he abilities that come with the phone from wifi connectivity, gps, instant messaging, camera capabilities, battery power and many other options that the consumer is going to inquire about in the competitive market of cell phones and cell phones manufactures, and the distribution and profitability is going to be the marker of success of the product. This is a decision that concept teams and designers must deal with when making a product; we are going to look at the company Audi a German car manufactures that has had great success with their automobile and the history s impeccable and with the impact we are going to look at the life cycle in what goes into making this car company, one of the best car makers and manufactured vehicles in the world today. â€Å"Arrival of the product’s maturity stage is evident when competitors to begin to leave the market, sales velocity is dramatically reduced, and sales volume reaches a steady state. At this point in time, mostly loyal customers purchase the product. â€Å"The Audi A4 has reached a stage of maturity that doesn’t have the onslaught of new buyers, the Audi lineup has diversified itself ith select products that offer a more entry level product that is better on gas, and has more of the financial impact with new design concepts, with wagons, coupes, smaller engines that are preserving the manufacturer’s competitive edge in the automobile industry. The A4 is still an important cog in the Audi machine, but the popularity of the A3 and, latterly, the A1 have eased the burden of expectation quite considerably. Perhaps that makes it a little easier for Audi to finesse this latest generation A4 without too much in the way of compromise. † â€Å"In the wake of the global financial and economic crisis, the drastic slump on stock arkets worldwide initially continued unabated at the start of 2009. Thanks to the many state rescue packages for the financial sector and supporting measures by leading central banks, the situation on the capital markets then stabilized towards the end of the first quarter. † So with the banks of the home country are helping to lend the finances need to invest in Audi’s financial growth and the supplement of income, generates the opportunity for the company to continue their worldwide success, of exporting one of the leading German automobiles in the world. Europe has proven to be a happy hunting ground for Audi and it now has both Mercedes and BMW looking over their shoulders. For the six-month period under review, total European sales grew 13. 5 per cent to about 382,850 cars with its SUV sales up 23. 5 per cent over the ame period last year. † So the overall positioning and product sales are being generated for the company in their home country and is having great success from the sale from their entire lineup and with the generated revenue from the public sector, the company’s growth financially is leading to the verall success of the car manufacturer. As the year progressed, the increasingly positive business indictors and initial signs of recovery in the global economy fueled sharp gains on major international stock markets. A resurgence in confidence in stock markets among market players resulted in many indices finishing the year well up. † With the public stimulation in the stock of the company they are being rewarded for the great innovation, stability and creativity they have when they are entering foreign markets and their market as well. With the financial backing the company is oing to grow and with the company growing around %24 from the previous year their products will continue to have a great international impact. â€Å"Trading groups, whether bilateral or regional, are an important influence on MNEs’ strategies. Such groups can define the size of the regional market and the rules under which companies must operate. Companies in the initial stages of foreign expansion must be aware of the regional economic groups that encompass countries with good manufacturing locations or market opportunities. For instance when you have a company that assesses the needs of their roduct in a foreign market, there is cost associated with the export of their product and with the agreements that the company has that is protected by trade agreements the company will save monies in the long run and withstand the impact of their product being sold in other markets, by sometimes having that price reduction of tax, shipping cost when building that relationship, to progress the growth in their company and in both markets of goods exported and sold. One of the factors behind the success of the brand in Jamaica, Stewart believes, is its affordability despite it being a premier brand. With the brand being sold well in the Jamaican market the bilateral agreement will have success because of the impact that the affordability in this market will have great growth for the company and Jamaica’s market as well. â€Å"In China, mobility is happening top-down. That society’s elite has long been driving full-size cars; the new, affluent middle class is now discovering smaller premium vehicles. In India, mobility is taking shape in the lower segments; the premium markets for larger vehicles is now growing continuously. † With the multilateral movement as well the company is growing in many foreign markets with nd aiding the backing of the Audi brand, that has shown great impact financially for the company and benefits in operating in these markets, reflect the %24 growth. European companies taking advantage of free trade in the Caribbean Single Market Economy (CSME) by establishing trade offices in Jamaica or distribution agreements with Jamaican companies with a view to providing your goods or services to the Caribbean Single Market Economy. † The free trade agreement offers the company to enter the Jamaican market and gain financial traction from the public, buying their cars at a affordable price, the ilateral agreement helps in terms of sales and distribution in allowing the flexibility, opportunity and growth needed for the company and as well as stimulating the Jamaican market. â€Å"Many more people in Jamaica are buying Audi motor vehicles because the brand is cool and its drivers have no class pretensions. They generally tend to be professional, well read and discerning. † â€Å"Audi will launch diesel engine options for the A8, A6, and Q5 in the U. S. within the next 24 to 30 months, according to an announcement made today by Johan de Nysschen, he president of Audi’s American division. † If you are an American you know what it means to fill up at the gas station and know that you won’t last that long on the road, until the next time that you are going to need more gas. One approach that Audi has take is going forward with producing electrical and diesel based engines so that the longevity and affordability of these vehicles will extend the product life cycle. It has been show that these to engine styles extend the life of the vehicle and with that the investment of the vehicle is more bang for the dollar to he average consumer that is looking for a quality investment, and not a stockpile of metal that will need to be resold to the dealership when the miles get high, and will take a finances will take a sharp turn because of this factor. So with that vehicles in America and worldwide not mattering if you’re talking Europe, the Caribbean Islands, China, Canada or Mexico the car maker is looking out for the investor in their vehicles and with the innovation for extended life to their products, safety and creativity in design, and luxury the auto brand maker will continue the company’s rapid growth in all markets they penetrate. Sustainable, superior financial strength is underpinned in particular by continuously optimizing process and structures, realizing reduced costs and ensuring systematic investment management. A high level of self-financing safeguards investments, preserving the ability of Audi AG to innovate and act. The aim is continue financing investment from self generated cash flow. † This will be the backbone of the company for progression and distancing itself from competitors by being able to provide luxury, innovation, and creativity for the consumer in a locations of the world that the company serves.

Of mice and men: a pessimistic story Essay

The story is set during the Great Depression, a time of poverty, homelessness and pain in the United States. With impending war in the air, a job would have been a prized thing. Each character in the story lives a life that is full of hopes and dreams, which are coupled with the knowledge that they can never be realised; George’s ‘Holy Grail’ is to his own farm, which he knows he can never have as long as Lennie is present to hinder his successes. Right at the beginning of the story, we learn that George and Lennie have already had to flee from their previous job in a town called Weed since Lennie would not let go of a girl’s dress. George has to look after Lennie as though he were an infant or a pet; Lennie almost has obliviousness to the world around him. Thus George, like a mother who is bound to her child, has no prospects apart from his devotion to Lennie even though he constantly hinders George with his unending string of ‘bad things’ Similarly Curley’s wife also had a dream, she wanted to be in the movies but had that chance taken from her by her mother. Curley’s wife has been forced to exchanges a life of glitz, glamour and fame for one of poverty, constraint, anonymity and a marriage in which she is unhappy. Curley’s wife still fantasises about the possibility of being in a movie, even though that moment has long gone. Crooks wishes he had the same respect his father had when he was a landowner, when he is talking to Lennie he says: â€Å"If I say something, why it’s just a nigger sayin’ it. â€Å"; Crooks craves his voice to be heard, for people to recognise him as a person and not just a ‘nigger’. To Crooks, it must have seemed like his one dream would never materialize. Moreover, the story portrays each character as the ‘Common Man’ who will always be relatively anonymous and powerless, even though dreams are made and plans are prepared, Steinbeck sets each characters position and makes sure that I t never does and never can change. A lonely and antisocial air haunts all of the characters all appear suspicious of George and Lennie’s friendship and none of them appear to have a good relationship with their ‘fellow man’. Even the name of the place in which the story is set, Soledad, is Spanish meaning loneliness or lonely place. Curley does not have a good relationship with his wife: â€Å"I don’ like Curley, he ain’t a nice fella'†, she continually wanders about the ranch, seeking some kind of familiarity; Curley himself is always one step behind whenever he is searching for her. It seems as though no one is safe from the solitude that engulfs them all, not even in the institute of marriage. Crooks is underlined as an outsider because of the segregation that exists in the bunkhouses, his anti social actions are fuelled by his seemingly utter contempt and hatred of friendships and people behaving amicably toward each other. He avoids contact with other people and will even go as far as to avoid it. He has effectively stated, ‘this is my space, keep out of it’ Crooks emphasises his will for solitude by tormenting Lennie and asking him what he would do if George left him. Crooks revels in his torment by frightening Lennie onto the threshold of isolation, something for which, George and Lennie have unique resilience. Even George eventually succumbs to the atmosphere of loneliness and frequently plays Solitaire whenever Lennie isn’t around. Also, no one in the story seems to be allowed the human comfort of his own possessions, except Crooks, who substitutes friends for his belongings. Candy is denied his dog, his only true companion, Curley deprived of his wife and George who is continually refused ‘the good life’ of a more fixed home and continuity in life. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE John Steinbeck section.

Understanding quality management in the workplace Free Essay Example, 1250 words

Effective process quality standards ensure that design quality standards are achieved. Explain the Cost of Quality in the Workplace In an argument by Hoyle (2007) it is expected that improvement of quality in an organization would result into extra costs. The author further points out that increasing the quality of processes and products or services in the workplace requires an increased expenditure. The cost of quality may be incurred from four factors. Firstly, they cost may arise from prevention costs. Prevention cost are used to deter errors across the entire organization. They may include quality planning and product design verification. Appraisals cost may also be incurred. They may arise from cost incurred in the detection of flaws either by tests, audits or inspection. There may be also internal and external failure costs. Internal failure cost refer to expenses incurred in correcting of manufacturing errors while external failure costs arise from complaints, compensations or warranty to be offered after flawed products are released to the market (Hoyle, 2007). Describe a Quality System used in the Workplace An effective quality system used in the workplace is the statistical process control. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding quality management in the workplace or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Hoyle (2007) defines statistical process control as a way by which an organization monitors a specific industrial process and analysing the feedback from the personnel responsible for the process. The process is effectively completed by the use of control charts. The control charts are used to record the performance of each industrial process. The manager is then provided with the responsibility of analysing the results recorded on the control charts. From the information, the effectiveness of a certain process is compared to the minimum quality requirements. The information enable the manager to control the quality of the process before the final product can be generated. The process ensure all industrial processes in the organization are completed as required by both the organization and the customers. Identify Quality Standards Set for the Workplace In an argument by Hoyle (2007) the quality standards set for the workplace should be based on ensuring the quality of product and services provided to consumers is satisfactory. The author further asserts that to ensure this result, quality standards should be set across the entire workplace (Hoyle, 2007). The quality standards commence from the management team. The executive should ensure the entire production process is carried out as dictated by stated standards.